Bark is a Protective Covering

Bark is the hard protective covering or rind of the trunk, stem, branches, and roots of a tree, as distinguished from the wood. The bark consists of an inner and an outer layer but only the inner layer is alive. Bark is found primarily on older trees.
Very young trees have a thin skin called cork. Cork is composed of layers of dead cells which are saturated with waterproof substances called suberin and tannis. These chemicals are commercially extracted for use in tanning leather. In some ways cork is somewhat like our own skin, which is composed of dead skin saturated with the waterproof protein keratin. Keratin is a tough, fibrous protein that is especially common in skin, claws, hair, feathers and hooves. As with the cork of young trees our skin prevents diseases from entering our bodies.
When the cork layer of a tree becomes thick is called bark. The bark of western cedars can be as much as a foot thick (30cm).
The bark of a tree is full of openings that permit air to pass freely between the outside cells and the living layers of cells beneath. The openings allow the gas exchange through even the thickest tree trunks. The layers of cells underneath the bark grow and die, becoming converted into bark in the process.
Bark is used commercially in the tanning of leather (as mentioned above), in canoe building, and in basket making and in the manufacture of clothing and shoes, food flavoring, medicine, and cork and cork products.
The Native North Americans used birch bark to cover canoes and tepees, which were sturdy, light and easy to transport. The natives of British Columbia made coats and hats from pine bark, and rain wear from elm bark.
The spice known as cinnamon has been cultivated for centuries and is a popular aromatic and flavoring ingredient in foods, soaps, and medicines. A cinnamon farmer typically strips the bark off the stems of a cinnamon tree and collects the calyx from the base of each yellowish-brown cinnamon berry Fragrant cinnamon oil results from distilling the bark and calyx, and cinnamon sticks are made from the tightly rolled and dried bark of the stems.
Common witch hazel belongs to a group of deciduous flowering shrubs that are cultivated for their fragrant, colorful, frost-resistant flowers. Although grown as an ornamental, witch hazel is also valuable for the chemicals that can be extracted from its bark, wood and leaves and used in the manufacture of coagulants, cosmetics, and liniments.
The bark of the American Basswood had many uses. Inner bark fibres were twisted into twine, string or thread and used in mat weaving, bag weaving or with birch bark for building wigwams. The inner bark of the American beech was ground into flour and used in bread making.
The inner and outer bark of many native trees were used as medicine by aboriginal peoples, early settlers and today herbalists include many in their medicinal collections. It should be kept in mind however, that many plants in our region are poisonous or harmful and may cause adverse reactions if consumed or used externally. Trial and error is not the way to find out which will sicken you and which will not.

Speaking of Nature
Jim Ferguson, 5313 River Road, R.R.5, Renfrew, Ontario K7V 3Z8 Phone 613-432-2738 email jamesh@nrtco.net

A Different Place for a Clutch of Eggs

A family living at Calabogie, Ontario was digging their new potatoes and came upon a different clutch of eggs.
The four specimens were white and about half the size of your little finger. The family thought they were turtle eggs but they were the wrong shape and the wrong size. They had a feeling that they were snake eggs.
They placed them in a margarine container with a layer of garden soil under and over them: about two inches deep, the same as in the potato hill. The eggs hatched in a few days and three little snakes about four and a half inches long and half the thickness of a pencil emerged. The fourth egg appeared to be damaged and did not hatch. The little snakelets were dark above with a green luster and whitish below with no other markings. These are the field marks of an immature Eastern Smooth Green Snake.
The adult female smooth green snake lays her eggs in July or late August. They are deposited in the soil, under boards or flat stones where the heat of the sun helps incubate them. There are usually four to six eggs, but there may be as few as three or as many as eleven.
The eggs are elongated and thin-shelled. They are well advanced in development when laid so hatching is usually complete within one or two weeks. The eggs of most Ontario snakes require from seven to nine weeks to hatch. The tiny, dark snakelets that emerge from the eggs measure about four and a half inches (11.5cm) long. They are able to fend for themselves as soon as they leave the egg.
The Eastern Smooth Green Snake is common in Ontario. It averages from 16 to 20 inches in length (40-50cm); the body is almost the same diameter for most of its length. Because of its protective colouration, it is seldom seen.
The smooth green snake received its name because the scales are smooth, of a satiny texture and keeless (without ridges). In Canada the species ranges from Prince Edward Island to Central Saskatchewan. It frequents grassy meadows and clearings where soil is moist. It is seldom seen in the open possibly because its colouration blends so well with the green vegetation.
This little snake is very beneficial to gardeners. Among its favourite foods are insects, grubs, worms, grasshoppers, crickets, caterpillars and earwigs. It is very fond of hairless green caterpillars that are about an inch long.
Snakes always prey on other animals, none eat plant material. They may be either egg-laying or live-bearing. The Northern Ringneck Snake, Eastern Smooth Green Snake, Eastern Hognose Snake, Blue Racer (extremely rare) and the Eastern Milk Snake are hatched from eggs. The Eastern Garter Snake, Northern Ribbon Snake, Queen Snake, Northern Water Snake, Brown Snake, Red Belly Snake and the Massasauga Rattle Snake (extremely rare) are born live.

Speaking of Nature

Jim Ferguson, 5313 River Road, R.R.5, Renfrew, Ontario K7V 3Z8 Phone 613-432-2738 email jamesh@nrtco.net

False Impression, False Name

I am regularly contacted by people disturbed with seeing a snake they describe as having the appearance and habits of a rattlesnake. While their observations are certainly true, the snake in question is most likely a milk snake. And its name is a misnomer: this reptile does not take milk from cows but does search for food in barns where cattle may be present.
The markings of the milk snake are very much like those of copperhead and coral snakes. Both are extremely venomous but live in the southern part of the United States. Since when frightened or cornered the milk snake will rapidly vibrate its tail, making a sound that could be mistaken for that of a rattlesnake, few people wait around to study it at close range. Milk snakes are not intentionally harmful but will bite if handled carelessly.
Milk snakes are brightly coloured, smooth-scaled snakes that show a wide variety of blotches and colours from one part of their range to another. The base colour is creamy to light gray. A prominent series of brown, black-bordered blotches run down the back from head to tail of the slender body. Two sets of blotches run the length of the sides. The belly is a striking black and white checkered pattern. A prominent black or brown Y or W-shaped mark on the top of the head is a key field mark. A maximum length of 132 cm (four feet) has been recorded for this species but 91 cm (three feet) is considered large in Canada.
Southern Ontario and a narrow slice of Quebec along the Ottawa River seem to be the only areas blessed with the presence of the milk snake. The snake has been recorded fewer than ten times in Algonquin Park, which is on the northern border of their range.
About 90 percent of a milk snake's diet is made up of small rodents, mice, voles, moles, bats and chipmunks. Other food items include small fish, other snakes, and also birds and their eggs.
The milk snake kills its prey by constricting it in the coils of its body much like the boa constrictor of tropical areas. It does not however, crush its victim as the boa does. When a mouse is caught the milk snake quickly and tightly coils its body around its prey. Each time the mouse breaths out the coils tighten. The final result is that the prey dies by suffocation rather than being crushed.
Female milk snakes gather in egg-laying sites early in the summer. Often several clutches of eggs will be deposited within a meter of one another. Each female will lay up to 20 elliptical eggs which take about two months to hatch. The young do not reach sexual maturity until they are three years old and have a life span of seven years.
Milk snakes are very beneficial for rodent control but they are a bit feisty and are best left alone.

A Horrible Thought, No Doubt

In terms of their ability to survive, humans come in second best. The horrible thought is that insects are far more apt to survive than we are. As we swat at never-ending swarms of fliying pests it's easy to believe that some day they may just wear us down by their relentless ability to annoy us.
We spray them, trap them and try to annihilate them in every possible way but they scatter and attack us from every angle and with more ferocity than before. In many cases we do more harm to other creatures than to the target pests: the now outlawed use of DDT is a good example.
There are more species of insects than all other classes of animals combined. What they lack in size, insects make up in sheer numbers. It has been calculated that if all the insects in the world could be weighed they would measure more than all other life on earth combined.
Because of their amazing ability to adapt to changes in the environment, it has been suggested that these meddlesome creatures could eventually inherit the earth. But why are insects so successful? It’s because of their body shape for one thing. They can adapt to whatever is required of them to fill most spaces in nature from sewage lagoons to toxic landfills to radioactive sites. There are over 650 000 insect species in the world, 88 600 in North America and each has their own specialized habitat.
While most creatures have to crawl around on the earth, insects have the ability to fly during some stage of their lifecycle (usually adult). This allows them to move to any location suitable for their lifestyle. For example, the 2100 species of termite may live anywhere in the world – from the north to south pole – where there is plant life, regardless of temperature or annual rainfall. After mating, a queen bee, wasp or ant carries with her enough fertilized eggs to begin a new colony many kilometers from her home nest. She then lays her eggs in the ground and when only when conditions are suitable, the eggs hatch and a new generation begins. By this time, the female that laid the hatching eggs may be dead for many years.
The surface of every bit of water in the world is home to some form of insect. These waterways functions as highways, trampolines, skating rinks, communication systems, and food sources for insects. Water treaders, whirligig beetles and water striders are among the thousands of insects that spend their lives on water.
When it comes to insects, are the good and the bad (and the ugly). The good: bees that produce honey and pollinate plants, moths that produce silk for clothing, lady bugs that keep gardens free of aphids. The bad: leaf miners that destroy food crops, grasshoppers that suck sap from grain stalks and earwigs that eat anything in their path.
When it comes to living in harmony, maybe we can strike a deal with the insects and learn to get along for our mutual benefit.
Photos by Clayton Rollins

Your Local Wildwood Pharmacy

Gaultheria procumbens has the ring of a profound and mysterious elixir from the druggist's shelf. In laymen's terms it is called checkberry, mountain tea, teaberry, aromatic wintergreen and wintergreen. We know it best by the name wintergreen of which there are over 100 species worldwide. Our native species is named after Doctor Gaultier of Québec, who used wintergreen extensively in his home practice. Aboriginal people throughout the world have been familiar with this healing herb for thousands of years.
Wintergreen is a member of the heath family. It grows in almost all soils under all conditions from wet and organic to dry and rocky. The plant is evergreen, and grows to about 15 centimetres (6 inches) tall. Its shiney forest-green leaves, which turn to a gleaming maroon in winter, have a leathury surface that prevents loss of moisture during extreme summer drought.
The flowers are white and urn-shaped with five small lobes at the tip. They hang below the leaves on curving stems and appear early in June. The bright red berries ripen in September and remain on the plants until the following spring.
Wintergreen has its own arsenal of fungicides and bactericides and is seldom infected by disease, however, its delicious flavour and food value is its worst problem. White-tailed deer, black bears and the eastern chipmunk relish the plants and keep it cropped off close to the ground. Ruffed grouse, spruce grouse, ring-necked pheasants and wild turkeys eat both berries and leaves. Honey bees use the high-quality nectar during dry weather to make a superior honey.
It is as a medicinal herb that wintergreen is best known. Oil of wintergreen, distilled from the leaves, is composed primarily of methyl salicylate, a poison if used in large quantities. Minute amounts of this oil are used in flavouring toothpaste and other dental products, candy and lozenges. Aspirin, the most widely used drug after tobacco and caffeine, was originality extracted from wintergreen. When the poison (methyl) is removed from the oil, the crystalline material left behind is acetylsalicylic acid, the effective ingredient in aspirin.
As well as oil, the leaves of wintergreen contain a compound called arbutin. This material is more stable when it is heated than when it is cold, meaning that it retains its medicinal qualities when heated or rubbed into muscles for treating various aches and pains including rheumatism. A few drops of wintergreen oil on a soft cloth and placed on the brow is a common time-proven cure for headaches. As well, the stems of the plant are chewed by people around the world to prevent tooth decay. Wintergreen can found in the wild or may be grown from cuttings or seed in your garden. Choose a shaded area in dry, sandy soil amended with compost or a little peat moss.

When is a Red Fox, Not a Red Fox?

When it’s a black fox, a cross fox, a silver fox, a bastard fox or a Samson fox. The name "Red Fox" does not begin to describe all the colours found in the species. As a result the red fox is often referred to as the coloured fox, or polytypic: having many representatives.
The red fox can have several possible colour schemes, some of which may occur in the same litter. There are three recognized colour phases: red, silver and cross, and two naturally occurring mutations: bastard and Samson.
Between 45 and 75 percent of foxes are considered red phase. Red phase foxes may be found in much of North America but the silver and cross are seldom found south of Canada. The mutations are usually found in Canada.
The silver phase, which makes up between 2 and 17 percent of red foxes, may be black or silver depending on the amount of silver-tipped hairs which occur. Silver foxes are black except for a white tip on the tail and a silver frosting on the tips of some or nearly all the guard hairs.
The third phase, the cross fox, (about 35 percent of all red foxes) is dark with light buffy patches near the legs, shoulders and hips, and a distinct cross of dark fur across the shoulders.
The bastard fox is described as a cross fox with a red streak down the back rather than a dark one. This mutation may be the offspring of red and silver parents. The second mutation, often referred to as the Samson, lacks guard hairs and has only short underfur giving the animals a wooly appearance. The Samson is usually sooty gray in colour.
The genetics of coat colour in red foxes is very complicated. Variation within families may occur but in the wild only the three basic colour phases are present. Selective breeding of ranch foxes has resulted in some unusual colour phases, and changes in in temperament (more people friendly) and the adrenal glands.
Red foxes molt once a year beginning in April, triggered by the lengthening of days, and by June most foxes look rather ragged. However, the new fur coat begins to grow during summer and is most brilliant during October and November. But by mid-January the wear and tear of survival depletes the guard hairs, leaving only the soft underfur.
The rabies prevention program initiated by the Ministry of Natural Resources has resulted in an increase in fox numbers. This may provide more opportunities to see members of the multi-coloured red fox.
Photos by Clayton Rollins

The Cross and the Square

Two very prominent shapes in the night sky are the Northern Cross and the Great Square. The first is formed by the five brightest stars forming a cross in the constellation Cygnus (the Swan); the latter is called the Great Square of Pegasus as it is part of the constellation Pegasus.
In Greek mythology Cygnus was the friend of Phaethon, the son of Helius who was the god in charge of carrying the sun across the sky in his chariot each day. When a teenage Phaethon begged his father to let him drive the chariot, Helius relented. On the chosen day Phaethon and Cygnus boarded the chariot and sped recklessly across the sky with the sun in tow. To save the earth from the sun's heat, Zeus, the god of gods, threw a thunderbolt at the chariot causing Phaethon to bethrown from the chariot into a river. Cygnus leapt out of the chariot and saved Phaethon from drowning. To honour Cygnus, Helius turned him into a swan and placed him in the sky.
To find Cygnus (the Northern Cross) follow a line through the two stars on the handle edge of the Big Dipper and as it rises northwest. The Northern Cross is the dominant constellation in this area of the night sky. The best time to view these constellations is between 6 pm and 8 pm, any evening in December. Deneb, the star in the tail of the Swan, is 1600 light years from earth and has 60 000 times the power output of our sun. Albireo, the bright star at the head of the swan is really two stars. When viewed with binoculars the stars appear in two different colours.
To locate Pegasus follow the line from the pointer stars in the Big Dipper through Polaris, the North Star, toward the south. It is twice as far from Polaris to the Great Square as it is from the Big Dipper to Polaris. The Great Square of Pegasus (the winged horse) represents the body of the horse. The four stars in the square are about the width of your fist apart. In the night sky Pegasus is flying upside down. His head and neck are the chain of stars below the Square and his feet are the stars above.
Alpheratz, the star in the upper left hand corner of the Great Square, is one of the stars in the constellation Andromeda. If you search the area on a clear night, it is possible to see the Galaxy Andromeda with the naked eye. It appears as a fuzzy ball.
Before using binoculars, a spotting scope or a telescope, get to know some of the guideposts in the night sky. On a clear night it is possible to see 3000 stars with unaided eyes – enough for anyone starting out. The Big Dipper is the number one guidepost. The two pointer stars on the front edge of the dipper point toward Polaris, the North Star. From this point, with the help of some sky charts, all planets, constellations and galaxies can be located.